References
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(2007, August). Introduction to Special Issue of JCAL on mobile learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, pp. 283-284. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00233.x
The article discusses various reports published within the issue, including one by Liu and Kao on how classrooms can be re-designed to enable small group collaboration through handheld devices linked to large screens and another one by Fallahkhair, Pemberton, and Griffiths on a language learning service that incorporates interactive television and cell phones.
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(2009). E-Books Help the Mobile Generation Read. District Administration, 45(7), 48. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu
The article discusses the role of electronic books in education. It quotes Dave Whyley, director of a mobile learning project in Great Britain, saying many boys who will not read books are enthusiastic e-book readers. The author sees texting, which allows students to stay in their context, as preferred by students to books, which require removing oneself from the surrounding context. She suggests assigning online versions of books when available and waiting on buying dedicated e-book readers.
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Abernathy, D. (2001). Get Ready for M-Learning. Training & Development, 55(2), 20. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu
Focuses on the use of mobile learning as a tool for blended training employing face-to-face and remote methods in United States. Features and services in mobile learning; Vision of mobile learning according to Clark Quinn, director of cognitive systems at Knowledge Planet; Usage of computer technology in cars. INSETS: Get It on Your PDA;Sizzlin’ Sites for Mobile Gear.
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Ardito, C., Buono, P., Costabile, M., Lanzilotti, R., & Piccinno, A. (2009). Enabling Interactive Exploration of Cultural Heritage: An Experience of Designing Systems for Mobile Devices. Knowledge, Technology & Policy, 22(1), 79-86. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1007/s12130-009-9079-7
Interaction design of mobile systems is a complex activity because it requires considering new usability and user experience aspects in order to exploit the peculiar characteristics of mobile devices, such as their pervasive and ubiquitous nature. This paper discusses issues about designing, developing and evaluating mobile systems. Italy has a rich cultural heritage, and the focus in this study is on the design of systems that enable interactive exploration of historical sites, not only for enhancing the user experience but also for learning purposes. The experience of the researchers at the Interaction, Visualisation and Usability lab, University of Bari, Italy, in designing a mobile learning system, called Explore!, which supports young students learning ancient history during a visit to archaeological parks, is reported. The evaluation of Explore! through systematic field studies shows that the adopted approach is able to transform the visit to archaeological parks into a more complete and culturally rich experience.
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Attewell, J. (2003). Mobile learning. Literacy Today, (36), 14. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu
Describes a pan-European project that aims to use mobile telephones to teach basic literacy skills to young adults. Concerns of some educators that text messaging would result in poor spelling and grammar; Program’s target audience; Findings of a Finnish study on the effects of mobile phone use on literacy.
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Cavus, N., & Ibrahim, D. (2009). m-Learning: An experiment in using SMS to support learning new English language words. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(1), 78-91. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00801.x
There is an increase use of wireless technologies in education all over the world. In fact, wireless technologies such as laptop computers, palmtop computers and mobile phones are revolutionising education and transforming the traditional classroom-based learning and teaching into anytime and anywhere education. This paper investigates the use of wireless technologies in education with particular reference to the potential of learning new technical English language words using Short Message Service (SMS) text messaging. The system, developed by the authors, called mobile learning tool (MOLT), has been tested with 45 1st-year undergraduate students. The knowledge of students before and after the experiment has been measured. Our results show that students enjoyed and learned new words with the help of their mobile phones. We believe that using the MOLT system as an educational tool will contribute to the success of students.
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Clough, G., Jones, A., McAndrew, P., & Scanlon, E. (2008). Informal learning with PDAs and smartphones. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24(5), 359-371. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00268.x
There has been increasing interest in informal learning in recent years alongside interest in how such learning can be supported by technology. However, relatively little is known about the extent to which adults make use of their own mobile devices to support informal learning. In this study, a survey was used to investigate whether, and to what extent, experienced users of mobile devices use their mobile devices to support intentional informal learning. If so, do they make use of mobile device connectivity to support opportunistic informal learning and does such connectivity support or encourage collaborative informal learning? Experienced mobile device users were recruited from web forums and business, and asked whether they used their devices to support informal learning. A pattern of learning uses emerged, some of which deployed the mobile device capabilities relatively unchanged, others triggered adaptations to typical learning activities to provide a better fit to the needs of the learner. These informal learning activities provided the basis for the design of a flexible mobile learning framework that can be extended to support developments in mobile technology, and increasing use of Web 2.0 technologies by informal learners.
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Copley, J. (2007). Audio and video podcasts of lectures for campus-based students: production and evaluation of student use. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 44(4), 387-399. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1080/14703290701602805
Podcasting has become a popular medium for accessing and assimilating information and podcasts are increasingly being used to deliver audio recordings of lectures to campus-based students. This paper describes a simple, cost-effective and file size-efficient method for producing video podcasts combining lecture slides and audio without a requirement for any specialist software. The results from a pilot scheme delivering supplementary lecture materials as audio and video podcasts are also presented, including data on download patterns and responses to a survey of students on podcast use. These results reveal students’ enthusiasm for podcast recordings of lecture materials and their primary use by students in revision and preparation for assessments. Survey responses also suggest little likely impact on lecture attendance as a consequence of podcasting, but indicate that podcast recordings of lectures may not be effective in facilitating mobile learning.
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Engebretson, J. (2008). AN IDEA WORTH CLONING: One mobile learning program is serving rural students with extra-long commutes. Telephony, 14. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu
The article focuses on the interactive educational program founded by professor Billy Hudson and physician Julie Hudson for students in Grapevine, Arkansas. The program aims to give students an additional learning opportunity while they ride the bus to their school in Sheridan, which is a 3-hour roundtrip commute, by providing laptops connected to an onboard Wi-Fi router on the roof of the bus. The founders are hoping to obtain grant money to study the program’s impact on students’ learning.
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Gaskell, A. (2007). Open and distance learning on the move: mobile learning, crossing borders, rethinking roles. Open Learning, 22(3), 197-200. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1080/02680510701619778
The article discusses various reports published within the issue including one by Insung Jung and Colin Latchem on Asian open and distance learning and another one by Jacqueline H. Watts on distance learning.
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Heath, B., Herman, R., Lugo, G., Reeves, J., Vetter, R., & Ward, C. (2005). Developing a Mobile Learning Environment to Support Virtual Education Communities. T H E Journal, 32(8), 33-37. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu
Reports on the development of a mobile learning environment (MLE) to support virtual education communities in science and mathematics in the U.S. Comparison of features of traditional learning communities with capabilities of the MLE; Elements of the MLE infrastructure; Objectives of the MLE.
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Hoppe, H., Joiner, R., Milrad, M., & Sharples, M. (2003, September). Guest editorial: Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, p. 255. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1046/j.0266-4909.2003.00027.x
Editorial. Introduces the articles published in the September 2003 issue of ‘The Journal of Computer Assisted Learning.’ Wireless technology in education; Support for work-based learning; Use of mobile learning system in improving and transforming user experiences.
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Kharif, O. (2008). Cell Phones Make Headway in Education. BusinessWeek Online, 8. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu
The article focuses on the impact of cell phones on learning procedures of universities and schools in the U.S. According to William Rankin, co-director of mobile learning research at a school in Abilene Texas, cell phones can be use by instructors for such tasks as monitoring attendance. Moreover, other schools across the country, from Michigan to Maryland and Texas, conclude that advanced wireless devices can be used as much for learning as for entertainment.
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Keller, J. (2008). First principles of motivation to learn and e3-learning. Distance Education, 29(2), 175-185. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1080/01587910802154970
Technology-assisted learning systems are being developed at ever increasing rates, and the labels applied to such systems are growing with them. For example, not only do we have e-learning, but we also have hybrid learning, online learning, and mobile learning (m-learning), to mention only a few. Considering that technology is being incorporated in virtually all courses, this article uses the single term e3-learning, as introduced by Spector and Merrill in this special issue to refer to these systems collectively with the emphasis on effectiveness, efficiency, and engagement. Learning concerns learner motivation. Five first principles of motivation and volition that characterize learning systems that effectively motivate students are introduced in this article.
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Kim, P. (2009). Action research approach on mobile learning design for the underserved. Educational Technology Research & Development, 57(3), 415-435. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1007/s11423-008-9109-2
This paper discusses an action research study focused on developing a mobile learning model of literacy development for underserved migrant indigenous children in Latin America. The research study incorporated a cyclical action model with four distinctive stages (Strategize, Apply, Evaluate, and Reflect) designed to guide constituencies involved in the study to design, test, and enhance a mobile learning model. The findings, to date, reveal some of the contextual phenomena that create both challenges and opportunities for a mobile learning model. From this, design strategies are evolving focused on sustained literacy exposure for extremely marginalized (economically, educationally, geographically, and technologically) migrant indigenous children who have no consistent access to a formal education system
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Lee, M., & Chan, A. (2007). Pervasive, lifestyle-integrated mobile learning for distance learners: an analysis and unexpected results from a podcasting study. Open Learning, 22(3), 201-218. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1080/02680510701619810
This article opens with a discussion of how and why mobile learning (m-learning) is purported to be the next step in the evolution of distance education, before looking at various perspectives on what m-learning constitutes. It critically examines the degree to which ‘true’ m-learning has been achieved, by offering pedagogical value beyond the mere use of mobile devices to deliver e-learning content. The authors argue that podcasting, in combination with a variety of portable MPEG Layer 3 (MP3)-capable devices that are increasingly ubiquitous, can be used to deliver a form of m-learning that offers a higher degree of lifestyle integration than many current ‘state of the art’ m-learning applications, despite not being as technically complex. They present an example of a study in which podcasting was used to deliver supplementary listening material to distance learners undertaking an information technology subject. An end-of-semester survey yielded extremely positive feedback about uptake levels and the perceived effectiveness of the podcasts in aiding the students’ learning of the subject matter. However, it also produced interesting results on the ways the students made use of the podcasts, which deviated from the researchers’ original intentions for ‘anytime, anywhere, any device’ learning. The results are discussed in the light of possible influencing factors, supported by follow-up interview data. The study may have broader implications for the still nascent field of m-learning.
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M., H. (2008). iPhones the Latest to Join Mobile Learning Mix. University Business, 11(4), 21. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu
The article reports on the use of mobile devices, particularly the iPod touch, in different universities and colleges in the U.S. A study reveals that the Abilene Christian University in Texas will be distributing either an Apple iPhone or iPod touch to freshmen for daily use. Chief information officer Kevin Roberts says that officials select these devices because the devices provide Web browsers. The Oklahoma Christian University will also distribute Macbook to their students.
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Peng, H., Su, Y., Chou, C., & Tsai, C. (2009). Ubiquitous knowledge construction: mobile learning re-defined and a conceptual framework. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 46(2), 171-183. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1080/14703290902843828
Emerging from recent mobile technologies, mobile learning, or m-learning, is beginning to offer ‘stunning new technical capabilities’ in education (DiGiano et al., 2003). This new genre of learning is viewed as a revolutionary stage in educational technology. However, ubiquitous computing technologies have given rise to several issues. This article revisits the relevant definitions and provides a conceptual framework of ubiquitous knowledge construction in light of contemporary research and theory. The framework can be used to assist educators and researchers who are examining the specific implications of mobile learning.
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Rees, J. (2006). Interview With Ellen Wagner. American Journal of Distance Education, 20(3), 181-186. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1207/s15389286ajde2003_5
This article presents an interview with Ellen D. Wagner, the director of Worldwide eLearning Solutions with Adobe Systems Inc. Wagner discusses anywhere, anytime learning with mobile learning devices and connected communications. Wagner also discusses what she sees globally in regards to mobile learning and how the creation and communication of content will need to change to accommodate mobile learning.
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Roschelle, J., Sharples, M., & Chan, T. (2005, June). Introduction to the special issue on wireless and mobile technologies in education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, pp. 159-161. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2005.00123.x
This article introduces the articles in the June 2005 of the “Journal of Computer Assisted Learning,” about wireless and mobile technologies in education. The issue features revised and elaborated versions of best papers presented at the two international conferences on mobile learning. The Second IEEE International Workshop in Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education was held at the National Central University in Chungli, Taiwan, in March 2004 with the theme of mobile support for learning communities. The Third European Conference on Mobile Learning was at Lake Bracciano, Italy, in July 2004, with the theme of learning anytime, everywhere. The special issue reveals the productive interaction between new ecologies of learning and wireless and mobile technology. Three of the papers focus on extending learning outside the classroom.
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Roschelle, J. (2003). Keynote paper: Unlocking the learning value of wireless mobile devices. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19(3), 260. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1046/j.0266-4909.2003.00028.x
Many researchers see the potential of wireless mobile learning devices to achieve large-scale impact on learning because of portability, low cost, and communications features. This enthusiasm is shared but the lessons drawn from three well-documented uses of connected handheld devices in education lead towards challenges ahead. First, ‘wireless, mobile learning’ is an imprecise description of what it takes to connect learners and their devices together in a productive manner. Research needs to arrive at a more precise understanding of the attributes of wireless networking that meet acclaimed pedagogical requirements and desires. Second, ‘pedagogical applications’ are often led down the wrong road by complex views of technology and simplistic views of social practices. Further research is needed that tells the story of rich pedagogical practice arising out of simple wireless and mobile technologies. Third, ‘large scale’ impact depends on the extent to which a common platform, that meets the requirements of pedagogically rich applications, becomes available. At the moment ‘wireless mobile technologies for education’ are incredibly diverse and incompatible; to achieve scale, a strong vision will be needed to lead to standardisation, overcoming the tendency to marketplace fragmentation.
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Salz, P. (2006). Learning to Go. EContent, 29(3), 44. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu
This article offers information on possible growth opportunity for mobile technologies. Most content providers remain unimpressed with mobile content because they tend to focus on delivering a few wireless-enabled enterprise applications with a preponderance of predictable mainstream mobile content, which by definition often appeals to the lowest common denominator. Unfortunately, the industry has failed to tap mobile learning and services that move education out of the classroom and into the learner’s environment. The trend toward increased mobility in traditional learning and training environments such as campuses, offices and hospitals is driving demand for a new breed of mobile learning services.
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Scanlon, E., & Jones, A. (2005, July). Mobility, collaboration and research into practice. Learning, Media, & Technology, pp. 101-105. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1080/17439880500093422
The article discusses various reports published within the issue, including one by Jenny Waycott, Ann Jones and Eileen Scanlon on the application of an activity theory to the evaluation of personal digital assistants for mobile learners and another by Josie Taylor and Diane Evans on the evaluation and development of a sound mobile learning environment.
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Schwabe, G., & Göth, C. (2005). Mobile learning with a mobile game: design and motivational effects. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(3), 204-216. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2005.00128.x
Mobile technologies offer the opportunity to embed learning in a natural environment. This paper describes the design of the MobileGame prototype, exploring the opportunities to support learning through an orientation game in a university setting. The paper first introduces the scenario and then describes the general architecture of the prototype. The main part of the paper focuses on the evaluation of design issues and the effects observed in two trials. Design issues include: Supporting work on the move poses difficult interface questions, the accuracy of current outdoor, and indoor positioning systems is still problematic and the game requires near real-time response time. The evaluation of the effects shows that features such as‘map-navigation’ and‘hunting and hiding’ lead to excitement and fun. The participants immerse into a mixed reality that augments both physical and social space. The game success is based on the motivating design of the game itself. The paper concludes with open issues for future research, especially with the need to thoroughly evaluate the learning benefits.
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Shen, R., Wang, M., & Pan, X. (2008). Increasing interactivity in blended classrooms through a cutting-edge mobile learning system. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(6), 1073-1086. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00778.x
Chinese classrooms, whether on school grounds or online, have long suffered from a lack of interactivity. Many online classes simply provide recorded lectures to which students listen after downloading. This format only reinforces the negative effects of passive non-participatory learning. At the e-Learning Lab of Shanghai Jiaotong University researchers and developers actively seek technologic interventions that can greatly increase interactivity in blended classes. They developed a cutting-edge mobile learning system that can deliver live broadcast of real-time classroom teaching to online students with mobile devices. Their system allows students to customise means of content-reception, based on when and where the students are tuning in to the broadcast. The system also supports short text messaging and instant polls. Through these venues, students can ask questions and make suggestions in real time, and the instructor can address them immediately. Here we describe this system in detail, and also report results from a test implementation of the system with a blended classroom of 1000 students (250 campus and 750 online).
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Taylor, J., & Evans, D. (2005). Pulling together: keeping track of pedagogy, design and evaluation through the development of scenarios—a case study. Learning, Media, & Technology, 30(2), 131-145. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1080/17439880500093588
This case study describes the multipurpose use of scenarios in a large multinational research project (MOBIlearn) whose aims are to design and develop a pedagogically sound mobile learning environment. Maintaining effective communication and design focus in large consortia is a well-known problem (see Carroll, 2000), and we describe the role of scenarios in addressing this. Scenarios were initially used to simply envision the future system in order to inform design, but as the project progressed, the role of the scenarios grew to encompass (i) relating system design and implementation to pedagogy by providing a common frame of reference for developers and pedagogic experts; (ii) through a process of refinement, defining the evaluation strategy for the user trials; and (iii) allowing us to keep the user at the heart of the development project. Thus, scenarios helped to resolve the difficulty identified by Taylor (2004) of how to bring together the relatively high level issues of pedagogic evaluation and the more technical user-centred system evaluation. The development of a first-aid training scenario is used as an illustrative example.
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T.C. Liu, J., H.Y. Wang, J., J.K. Liang, J., T.W. Chan, J., H.W. Ko, J., & J.C., Y. (2003). Wireless and mobile technologies to enhance teaching and learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19(3), 371. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1046/j.0266-4909.2003.00038.x
This research aims to build a Wireless Technology Enhanced Classroom (WiTEC) that supports everyday activities unobtrusively and seamlessly in classroom contexts. This paper describes the integration of wireless LAN, wireless mobile learning devices, an electronic whiteboard, an interactive classroom server, and a resource and class management server to build the WiTEC. This contains a number of features that can support class members in various types of teaching and learning activities. Project-based learning is taken as a scenario to elaborate how teachers and students can engage in teaching and learning via WiTEC. Finally, a number of suggestions are discussed for further study.
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Wagner, E., & Wilson, P. (2005). Disconnected. T+D, 59(12), 40-43. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu
The article focuses on a significant rise in mobile device adoption by professionals. In 2005, the number of U.S. mobile telephone users surpassed the number of traditional land-based phone lines. In addition to opening up new forms of real-time interactive communication such as text messaging and instant messaging, the adoption of mobile devices for the purpose of learning is starting to show greater adaptability. Technologies such as podcasting has just been initiated into the genre of prerecorded audio programming. With portable MP3 players and mobile games already capturing much early attention in the mobile learning arena, the real excitement these days continues to focus on the significant developments occurring in the mobile networking world. Mobile learning is for the purpose of those people who need access to information and performance support when out in the field or on the job. Mobile learning includes those strategies, practices, tools, applications, and resources that take advantage of ubiquitous networks and pervasive digital devices to realize the promises of anytime, anywhere learning.
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Wang, M., Shen, R., Novak, D., & Pan, X. (2009). The impact of mobile learning on students’ learning behaviours and performance: Report from a large blended classroom. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(4), 673-695. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00846.x
Chinese classrooms, whether on school grounds or online, have long suffered from a lack of interactivity. Many online classes simply provide recorded instructor lectures, which only reinforces the negative effects of passive nonparticipatory learning. At Shanghai Jiaotong University, researchers and developers actively seek technologic interventions that can greatly increase interactivity in large blended classes. They developed a cutting-edge mobile learning system that can deliver live broadcasts of real-time classroom teaching to students with mobile devices. Their system allows students to customise means of content-reception based on when and where they tune into the broadcast. The system also supports short text messaging and instant polls. Through these venues, students can ask questions and make suggestions in real time, and the instructor can address them immediately. This article describes this system in detail, and also reports results from a formal implementation of the system in a blended English classroom of 1000 students (with about 800 being online). As the data reveal, m-learning activities can much better engage students in the learning process. Students in this class changed from passive learners to truly engaged learners who are behaviourally, intellectually and emotionally involved in their learning tasks.
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Wang, Y., Wu, M., & Wang, H. (2009). Investigating the determinants and age and gender differences in the acceptance of mobile learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(1), 92-118. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00809.x
With the proliferation of mobile computing technology, mobile learning (m-learning) will play a vital role in the rapidly growing electronic learning market. M-learning is the delivery of learning to students anytime and anywhere through the use of wireless Internet and mobile devices. However, acceptance of m-learning by individuals is critical to the successful implementation of m-learning systems. Thus, there is a need to research the factors that affect user intention to use m-learning. Based on the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT), which integrates elements across eight models of information technology use, this study was to investigate the determinants of m-learning acceptance and to discover if there exist either age or gender differences in the acceptance of m-learning, or both. Data collected from 330 respondents in Taiwan were tested against the research model using the structural equation modelling approach. The results indicate that performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, perceived playfulness, and self-management of learning were all significant determinants of behavioural intention to use m-learning. We also found that age differences moderate the effects of effort expectancy and social influence on m-learning use intention, and that gender differences moderate the effects of social influence and self-management of learning on m-learning use intention. These findings provide several important implications for m-learning acceptance, in terms of both research and practice.
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Y.S. Chen, H., T.C. Kao, H., & J.P. Sheu, H. (2003). A mobile learning system for scaffolding bird watching learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19(3), 347. http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.gc.maricopa.edu, doi:10.1046/j.0266-4909.2003.00036.x
This paper develops a mobile learning system for scaffolding students learning about bird watching. The aim is to construct an outdoor mobile-learning activity using up-to-date wireless technology. The proposed Bird-Watching Learning (BWL) system is designed using a wireless mobile ad-hoc network. In the BWL system, each learner has a PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) with a Wi-Fi-based (IEEE 802.11b) wireless network card. The BWL system offers a mobile learning system which supports the students learning through scaffolding. The aim of a formative evaluation was twofold: to explore the possible roles and scaffolding aids that the mobile learning device offers for bird-watching activities and to investigate whether student learning benefited from the mobility, portability, and individualization of the mobile learning device.
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